ABSTRACT
New psychoactive substances (NPSs) popularly known as Legal Highs are growing at an alarming rate causing a threat to the public health. They are available online or in head shops and come with variety of street names across the cities, states, and countries. NPSs are prepared in the laboratories either by tweaking or altering the chemical structure of existing substances such as cannabis and ecstasy. They are cheap, easy to obtain, and difficult to be detected by traditional drug screening methods.In recent years, a number of chemical analysis techniques are being used to identify NPS. As per the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) questionnaire on NPS analysis, most of the respondents stated using gas or liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS or LC-MS).
INTRODUCTION
Human beings have been exploring various substances since ancient times. Long back, the common drugs of consumption were nicotine, alcohol, and cannabis known as gateway drugs. Then the harder drugs such as opioids and cocaine entered into the market. These drugs had just captured the young minds, but their curiosity drove them to get access to newer drugs and the drug scenario got completely changed in the last decade. These are called the new psychoactive substances (NPS). NPS have been known in the market by terms such as legal highs, herbal highs, bath salts, synthetic drugs, party pills, synthetic cocaine, herbal ecstasy, loaded, HyperDrive and Neuro Blaster, plant fertilizer, herbal incense, room deodorisers, aphrodisiac tea, social tonics, new and emerging drugs, drug analogs, and research chemicals. These products can sometimes be marked as “not for human consumption.” In the last decade, India too like all the other countries has witnessed the change in the pattern of the drugs used. The factors such as easy availability, online shopping, and no regulatory control have led to the explosion of NPS into the recreational drug market. Pharmacologically, these substances affect dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin producing a broad spectrum of effects. A broad range of negative health outcomes have been associated with their use.
image source: NDARC AUSTRALIA
WHAT IS NPS AND Its TYPES?
UNDOC defines New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) as substance abuse either in a pure form or a preparation, that are not controlled by 1961 Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs or the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, but which may pose a health threat.
The psychoactive substances which are controlled under the international drug conventions can produce their pharmacological effects by different mechanisms, like by their interactions with opioid receptors and inhibitory neurotransmitters, or by the activation of the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), or by action at the GABAA, or NMDA receptor, or by altering the levels and action of monoamine neurotransmitters.
Using this approach majority of the NPS are assigned into six main groups :-
Image Source: - UNODC
WHO ARE ACCESSING THEM MORE?
Access to new psychoactive substances (NPS) can vary depending on factors such as geographic location, socioeconomic status, age, and cultural norms. However, several groups are often associated with accessing NPS more frequently:
⦁ Young Adults: Factors such as peer pressure, a desire for novelty, experimenting new substances and a lack of awareness about the risks can contribute to their higher usage rates.
⦁ Club and Party Scenes: The desire for enhanced experiences, coupled with a perception of NPS as legal or safer options, may attract individuals in these scenes to experiment with them.
⦁ Online Communities: The internet has become a significant marketplace for NPS, with online forums, social media, and darknet markets facilitating access to these substances.
⦁ Marginalized Communities: Socioeconomically disadvantaged or marginalized communities may have higher rates of NPS use due to factors such as limited access to traditional drugs, exposure to trauma, and coping mechanisms for dealing with stressors such as poverty and discrimination.
⦁ Students and Academic Settings: Some NPS, particularly cognitive enhancers or "smart drugs," may be more prevalent among students and academics seeking to improve their performance and productivity.
⦁ Individuals Seeking Alternatives to Traditional Drugs: Some people turn to NPS as alternatives to illegal or controlled substances, either due to legal concerns, perceived safety, or a desire for novel experiences.
HEALTH HAZARDS
At the rate they are produced, it is impossible to predict the complications that users should expect. They are unregulated and untested, and the same product may have different constituents from patch to patch due to which the users are prone to developing overdose which could be fatal. The health hazards scan is physical or psychological, including cardiovascular problems, seizures, renal failure, myocardial infarction, anxiety, agitation, memory loss, depression, psychosis, and suicide. They have also been implicated, through intravenous injections and sharing needles, thus are at risk of developing life-threatening complications such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV/AIDS. The complications can be developed if there is concomitant use of alcohol or the other drugs along with NPS. In general, side effects of NPS range from seizures to agitation, aggression, acute psychosis, as well as potential development of dependence. NPS users have frequently been hospitalized with severe intoxications. Safety data on toxicity and carcinogenic potential of many NPS are not available or very limited, and information on long-term adverse effects or risks are still largely unknown. Purity and composition of products containing NPS are often not known, which places users at high risk as evidenced by hospital emergency admissions and deaths, sometimes associated with polysubstance use.
GLOBAL PREVALENCE
The emergence of NPS has been reported in around 134 countries and territories all over the world. According to the EMCDDA, the most common among the categories of NPS reported to the EU are cannabinoids (25%), followed by cathinones (22%) and other synthetic compounds (EMCDDA, 2019).
According to the UNODC EWA report as on18.5.2022, the total number of NPS reported from the US and Sweden was about 500, while the European countries (UK, Poland) and Canada reported about 400 NPS.From Japan 300-399 NPS were documented. Countries like China, Russia and Denmark observed 200-299 NPS during this time period.
INDIAN PREVALENCE:
In India, there is very limited scientific information available on the prevalence of NPS in the Indian market. However, there are regular reports from the media regarding their seizures. An upsurge in synthetic cathinone like mephedrone is reported among teenagers. Recently in August 2022, the Mumbai police reported one of the biggest haul of more than 700Kg of mephedrone seized from a manufacturing unregulated laboratory in Mumbai. Law enforcement agencies in India report, both structured or unstructured channels for ketamine. Seizure of more than 1 KG of ketamine was observed between 2009 - 2012 in India (UNODC, Global Smart Programme, 2013).One of the local widely available pills called CK1 pills now trending in clubs as party drugs at Goa. The pill combines cocaine and ketamine. It is sold by its street names Blizzard and Calvin Klein.In the North, Kullu valley is known for its full-moon jungle rave parties. In the South, Bangalore has also turned into a rave hotspot. There is lack of awareness about the pharmacology and toxic effects of these drugs among the health professionals in India.
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Image source: researchget.net
INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES : Collection, Preservation, and Examination
Collecting evidence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) from a crime scene in India involves following specific protocols to ensure proper handling and documentation. Law enforcement agencies typically work closely with forensic experts to identify and collect these substances. Here's an overview of the process:
⦁ Scene Assessment: Law enforcement officers assess the crime scene to identify any substances that may be present. This includes looking for drug paraphernalia, suspicious powders, pills, or liquids.
Section 42 of NDPS ACT empowers the Drug Law Enforcement Officer(DLEO) to search, seize and arrest in an enclosed place like a private house, godown, office or a garage, while Section 43 empowers him to search, seize and arrest in a public place like a railway station, bus terminus, airport, highway, and the like.
⦁ Documentation: Detailed documentation of the scene is crucial. This includes photographs, sketches, and notes regarding the location and condition of any substances found.
Image source : field officer’s handbook,NCB
⦁ Safety Measures: Safety precautions are taken when handling potentially hazardous substances. This may involve wearing protective gear such as gloves, masks, and goggles to prevent exposure.
⦁ Collection and Packaging: NPS and related paraphernalia are carefully collected using clean tools (such as tweezers or gloves) and placed in properly labeled containers. If the packages, articles and documents recovered are large in number, separate inventories should be made for each type of item, giving details such as serial number allotted, description of the item, marks and numbers found thereon, quantity, weight etc. Representative samples of substances if in solid or powder form should be kept in small plastic pouches and heat sealed as it is convenient and safe. The plastic container should be kept in a paper envelope sealed properly with gum. This envelope should be sealed with the official seal of DLEO over a paper slip containing the signatures of the witnesses, the owner/occupier/possessor in such a way that tampering is not possible without breaking the seals or damaging the envelope.
⦁ Chain of Custody: Maintaining a clear chain of custody is essential to preserve the integrity of the evidence. Each step of handling, transfer, and storage should be documented to ensure accountability and admissibility in court.
⦁ Preservation and Storage: Proper storage conditions are maintained to prevent degradation or contamination of the evidence. Substances may be stored in sealed containers at controlled temperatures until they can be analyzed.
⦁ Analysis: Forensic laboratories analyze the collected substances by the procedure mentioned under NDPS Act 1985 for each individual substance.
Forensic laboratories employ several analytical techniques to detect and analyze new psychoactive substances (NPS). These include: 1. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
⦁ Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS)
⦁ High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
⦁ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)
⦁ Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
⦁ Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
⦁ Immunoassays
⦁ Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME)
⦁ X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
⦁ Electrochemical Techniques
Each technique has its advantages and limitations, and forensic analysts often use a combination of these methods to comprehensively analyze NPS in forensic samples.
⦁ Legal Documentation: Results of the analysis are documented and may be used as evidence in legal proceedings. Expert testimony may be provided to explain the nature and effects of the substances found.
⦁ Disposal: As mentioned under section 52A of NDPS ACT, Proper disposal procedures are followed for any remaining substances after analysis. This typically involves incineration or other methods to ensure they cannot be accessed or reused.
LEGAL POLICIES
India has stringent laws governing psychoactive substances under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act).Regarding new psychoactive substances (NPS), these substances often fall under the purview of the NDPS Act if they mimic the effects of controlled substances listed in the Act. However, the Act may not specifically list all NPS, leading to challenges in enforcement. Under section 9A of NDPS Act Govt. has power to control and regulate the production, possession, distribution,manufacture, transport, import inter state, export inter-state, sale, purchase, consumption, use, storage, disposal or acquisition of any controlled substances.Section 41, 42, 43 and 50 deals with search, seizure, and arrest under NDPS Act.Section 55 gives officer power to arrest accused without warrant.
The effectiveness of these legal measures and regulations on the selling and marketing of the NPS has still to be assessed. NPS are usually produced in clandestine laboratories or diverted by licensed manufacturers. The lack of control and data on these substances make it challenging for law enforcement to clamp down on the manufacture, trafficking, and distribution of NPS.
CONCLUSION
NPS pose a serious public health crisis. There is sudden explosive emergence of these substances which has caused an epidemic of toxic exposures. Unfortunately, this area is still poorly investigated, and very limited information is available so far of their nature and potential risks. The health professionals should maintain a high degree of alertness for NPS use and their possible psychological effects among vulnerable people. The phenomenon of NPS requires multidisciplinary research in areas of epidemiology, pharmacology, and prevention. Research-guided prevention education would help us overcome this global health problem. The societal and political sensitization on this issue is the need of the hour.
REFERENCES
⦁ 2015 report of United Nations office on drugs and crime
⦁ Report of New psychoactive substances conducted by all India Institute of medical science
⦁ https://www.incb.org/documents/Publications/AnnualReports/AR2015/English/nps.pdf
⦁ https://journals.lww.com/aips/fulltext/2019/03020/new_psychoactive_substances__an_emergin g_epidemic.3.aspx
⦁ Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985
⦁ https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/NDA073%20New%20Psych oactive%20Substances%20%28NPS%29.pdf
Written by:
Ms. Divya Rathi
(Intern Id. -AFRS_OTP_FCT_10)
Forensic Science Student
Department of forensic science
Govt. Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, India.